Correct match: a–iv, b–i, c–ii, d–iii.

In Harappan Cities, standardized burnt bricks of ratio 1:2:4 found in all the sites. They were often of two or more storey, but no window faced the streets.

Visit Jainism and Buddhism

Jain traditions differ about whether Mahavira married. Visit Jainism and Buddhism

Amarkosha was written by Amarasimha, a Sanskrit grammarian and poet in the court of Chandragupta II (also known as Vikramaditya).

Mihir Bhoja (836–885 CE) (also Bhoja I) was a Gurjara-Pratihara Dynasty king. He took over for his father Ramabhadra. Bhoja was a Vishnu devotee who took the title of Divarha.

During his rule:

The capital was Kannauj (present-day Uttar Pradesh), which was known as Panchala at the time.
His son Mahendrapala I succeeded him (c.885 – 910 CE).
With the aid of feudatories such as Chedis and the Guhilas, he won victories over the Palas and the Rashtrakuta.
He was called King Baura by an Arab traveler, Al-Masudi.

Do you know!

In 1505, when Portuguese King Manuel I of Portugal chose to pick the first governor and viceroy of Portuguese India, da Gama was noticeably ignored, and Francisco de Almeida was appointed instead.
Vasco da Gama died of Malaria in India. His body was first interred at St. Francis Church in Fort Kochi and his bones were eventually repatriated to Portugal in 1539.

Important Portuguese Governors in India

1. Francisco De Almeida:

• He was the first governor and viceroy of the Portuguese State in India, appointed by King Manuel I of Portugal.
• 12 September 1505 – November 1509
• He strengthened the empire with his ‘Blue Water Policy’ i.e. to be powerful at sea instead of building fortresses on land.

2. Afonso de Albuquerque:

• Succeeded Almeida as the Second Portuguese governor in India
• 4 November 1509 – September 1515
• Conquered Goa, Malacca, Muscat and Hormuz.
• Occupied Goa from the Sultan of Bijapur in 1510.
• Started the First Portuguese Mint in the east, issuing gold, silver, and bronze coins based on local designs but engraved with the badge of the Portuguese kings.
• Considered the real founder of the Portuguese power in the East.

3. Vasco da Gama:

• Appointed by John II
• September 1524- December 1524
• This became his third voyage to India
• His tenure was short lived and he died of Malaria.

4. Nuno da Cunha:

• November 1529 – 1538
• Shifted the headquarters of the Portuguese government in India from Cochin to Goa in 1530.
• Captured Diu and Bassein from Bahadur Shah of Gujarat.
• Also established settlements at Salsette, Daman and Bombay on the west coast and at San Thome near Madras and Hugli in Bengal on the east coast.

5. Manuel António Vassalo e Silva:

• Appointed as the 128th Governor-General of Portuguese India by Dictator Salazar.
  1958-1961
• He was the 128th the Last Portuguese Governor of India
• On December 19, 1961, the Indian government launched Operation Vijay, resulting in the annexation of Goa and other Portuguese-held territories.

Padre Jerome Xavier, a nephew of St Francis with Emmanuel Pinheiro and Benedict Goes were included in the mission.

Key Locations of Dutch Factories
Masulipatnam (1605): located in Andhra Pradesh, the first Dutch factory in India
Pulicat (1610): It was later fortified and renamed Fort Geldria.
Surat (1616): a major port city and a center for trade in the western part of India.
Bimilipatam (1641)
Karaikal (1945)
Chinsura (1653): located in Bengal

The French-English rivalry resulted in struggle of dominance in South India. It resulted in a series of Carnatic Wars in India.

First Carnatic War (1740-48): It was a part of global struggle of colonial rivalry between both.

Governor-General Joseph Francois Dupleix (French) captured Madras.  Admiral Edward Boscawen and later Robert Clive (English) launched counterattacks. Peace settlement restored Madras to the British.

Second Carnatic War (1749-54): Started with Battle of Ambur (1749) as main contender for the Nawabship of the region. Chanda Sahib’s forces (backed by the French) clashed with Nawab Anwaruddin Khan and after his death his son Muhammad Ali Khan Wallajah (backed by the British). Chanda Sahib was declared the new Nawab of Carnatic region. The British led a successful counter attack and won several crucial battles including Battle of Trichinopoly (1751). The war concluded with the signing of the Treaty of Pondicherry in 1754, which reaffirmed Muhammad Ali Khan Wallajah as the Nawab of the Carnatic. The French agreed to withdraw from several territories.

Third Carnatic War (1758-63): The war was part of the larger global conflict known as the Seven Years’ War (1756-1763), which involved major European powers and their overseas colonies. The war concluded with the signing of the Treaty of Paris in 1763, which ended the broader Seven Years’ War. As a result, the French ceded several of their Indian territories to the British.

Kilich Khan is popularly known as Nizam-ul-Mulk, also known as Mir Qamar-ud-din Khan, was the founder of the Asaf-Jahi Dynasty and the first Nizam of Hyderabad. He was originally a Mughal noble who later established an independent state in theDeccan in 1724.

He was given the title ‘Nizam-ul-Mulk’ (the first Nizam- ‘Asaf Jah’) when appointed as the Viceroy of the Deccan by Mughal Emperor Farrukhsiyar in 1712. He defeated Mubariz Khan, the Mughal-appointed viceroy of the Deccan in the Battle of Shakar Kheda (1724), securing his control over Hyderabad.

The Indian National Congress session of 1927 was held at Madras under the presidentship of Mukhtar Ahmad Ansari, also the President of Muslim League. Decision to boycott the Simon Commission was taken and a resolution to object to the use of the Indian Troops in China, Mesopotamia and Persia was passed in this session. Resolution on ‘Purna Swaraj’ was adopted in Lahore Session (1929).

Gases at very high temperatures begin to break down, resulting mixture of neutral atoms, charged ions and free electrons is called a plasma. A plasma has some unique qualities to be labelled as a ‘fourth state of matter’ after solid, liquid and gas states. Plasma is the most common state of matter in the universe. Examples are Lightning, electric sparks, fluorescent lights, neon lights, plasma televisions, the Sun and all the stars, etc.

Si (atomic number 14, valency +4), Fluorine (9, -1), Aluminium (13, +3), Sulfur (16, -2)

Stomata are tiny pores mainly found on the lower epidermis of the leaf, which allow gas exchange in plants. In contrast, guard cells are pairs of bean-shaped cells surrounding each stoma, which controls pores’ opening and closing.

Presence of Functional Groups like –OH or –COOH contribute to hydrogen bonding, raising the melting point of carbon compounds.

The audible range of sound refers to the frequencies that humans can hear, typically between 20 Hz and 20 kHz. Sounds below this range are called Infrasound, while sounds above it are known as Ultrasound.

Ultrasound is beyond human hearing; used in medical imaging (e.g., ultrasound scans), sonar, and industrial applications. Ultrasound waves can be generated before the main shock waves in certain physical events like earthquakes.

The Communal Award of 1932 was a decision by British Prime Minister Ramsay MacDonald to introduce separate electorates in India for different religious and social communities, including Muslims, Sikhs, Christians, Anglo-Indians, and Dalits (then referred to as Depressed Classes).

This was opposed by Mahatma Gandhi, who believed it would divide Hindus and weaken their unity and undertook a fast unto death in Yerwada Jail, leading to the Poona Pact (1932), which replaced separate electorates with reserved seats for Dalits within the general Hindu electorate. It laid the foundation for affirmative action policies in independent India.

The Earth’s atmosphere scatters sunlight, which gives the sky its blue color at lower altitudes. Scattering, particularly Rayleigh scattering, is responsible for the blue color of the sky. It occurs when sunlight interacts with molecules in the atmosphere.

Charter Act (1833): Strengthening British Control

• The East India Company lost its monopoly over Indian trade, except in tea and trade with China.
• The Act allowed Christian missionaries to enter India and spread education and religion.
• It allocated ₹1 lakh annually for Indian education—an early step toward formal education policy.

The Constituent Assembly of India was established to draft the country’s constitution, created under the Cabinet Mission Plan (1946). The first meeting of the Constituent Assembly of India was held on 9 December 1946 in New Delhi. Sachchidananda Sinha, the oldest member, was appointed as the temporary chairman.The Muslim League refused to participate, demanding a separate nation. Later, Dr. Rajendra Prasad was elected as the permanent President, and Harendra Kumar Mookerjee became the Vice President

61^st Constitutional Amendment Act 1988 lowered the minimum voting age from 21 years to 18 years. It modified Article 326, which governs elections based on adult suffrage.

Visit Fundamental Rights

In the time of the Rig-Veda (1700 BC), evidence suggests that self-governing village bodies called ‘sabhas’ existed. With the passage of time, these bodies became panchayats (council of five persons). Visit Panchayats and Municipalities

It was enacted to implement the India-Bangladesh Land Boundary Agreement (LBA), which facilitated the exchange of enclaves between the two countries. India transferred 111 enclaves (covering 17,160 acres) to Bangladesh, while Bangladesh transferred 51 enclaves (covering 7,110 acres) to India. The agreement impacted West Bengal, Assam, Meghalaya, and Tripura, where the exchanged enclaves were located.

It was chaired by Justice Fazal Ali, with K.M. Panikkar and H.N. Kunzru as its other members.

Article 282 of the Indian Constitution allows both the Union and State governments to make grants for any public purpose, even if the purpose is beyond their legislative competence.

These proposers and seconders must be members of the electoral college, which includes MPs and MLAs. Additionally, the candidate must submit a security deposit of ₹15,000, which was increased from ₹5,000 earlier.

According to Article 101(2) of the Indian Constitution and the Prohibition of Simultaneous Membership Rules, 1950 ensures that an individual does not hold positions in both the State Legislature and Parliament simultaneously.

States with Rajya Sabha Seats:

Correct match: a–i (Zaskar), b–ii (Shivalik Range), c–iv (Lepcha Tribe), d–iii (Namcha Barwa).

The average elevation of Peninsular Plateau ranges from 600 to 900 meters.

The Tibetan Plateau acts as a barrier, splitting the subtropical westerly jet stream into two branches—one flowing north of Tibet and the other south of the Himalayas. The southern branch influences India’s winter weather patterns.

<figure class="wp-block-table aligncenter"> <table class="has-fixed-layout"> <tbody> <tr> <td><strong>Biosphere Reserve</strong></td> <td><strong>Location</strong></td> <td><strong>Area (km²)</strong></td> </tr> <tr> <td><strong>Great Rann of Kutch</strong></td> <td><strong>Gujarat</strong></td> <td><strong>12,454</strong></td> </tr> <tr> <td>Gulf of Mannar</td> <td>Tamil Nadu</td> <td>10,500</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Sundarbans</td> <td>West Bengal</td> <td>9,630</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Cold Desert</td> <td>Himachal Pradesh</td> <td>7,770</td> </tr> <tr> <td><strong>Nanda Devi</strong></td> <td><strong>Uttarakhand</strong></td> <td><strong>5,860</strong></td> </tr> <tr> <td>Nilgiri</td> <td>Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Karnataka</td> <td>5,520</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Dihang-Dibang</td> <td>Arunachal Pradesh</td> <td>5,112</td> </tr> <tr> <td><strong>Pachmarhi</strong></td> <td><strong>Madhya Pradesh</strong></td> <td><strong>4,982</strong></td> </tr> <tr> <td>Seshachalam Hills</td> <td>Andhra Pradesh</td> <td>4,755</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Simlipal</td> <td>Odisha</td> <td>4,374</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Achanakmar-Amarkantak</td> <td>Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh</td> <td>3,835</td> </tr> <tr> <td><strong>Agasthyamalai</strong></td> <td><strong>Kerala, Tamil Nadu</strong></td> <td><strong>3,500</strong></td> </tr> <tr> <td>Manas</td> <td>Assam</td> <td>2,837</td> </tr> <tr> <td><strong>Khangchendzonga</strong></td> <td><strong>Sikkim</strong></td> <td><strong>2,620</strong></td> </tr> <tr> <td>Great Nicobar</td> <td>Andaman &amp; Nicobar Islands</td> <td>885</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Nokrek</td> <td>Meghalaya</td> <td>820</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Dibru-Saikhowa</td> <td>Assam</td> <td>765</td> </tr> <tr> <td><strong>Panna</strong></td> <td><strong>Madhya Pradesh</strong></td> <td><strong>543</strong></td> </tr> </tbody> </table> </figure> <p>None of the given options is right. Answer should be Nanda Devi &gt; Panchmarhi &gt; Agasthyamalai &gt; Khangchendzonga &gt; Panna</p> <p>&nbsp;</p>

The classifications are based on the USDA Soil Taxonomy system:

Inceptisols – 39% (Largest soil group in India)

Entisols – 28% (Second largest, found in river plains)

Alfisols – 13% (Common in forested regions)

Vertisols – 8% (Black cotton soil)

Aridisols – 4% (Found in arid regions like Rajasthan)

Ultisols – 2% (Highly weathered soils)

Mollisols – 0.4% (Least common)

Both (i) and (ii) are true, and (ii) is correct reasoning of (i).

Ragi (Karnataka), Bazra (Rajasthan), Jowar (Maharashtra), Urad (Madhya Pradesh)

India ranks fourth globally in installed wind power capacity, following China, the United States, and Germany. As of March 2025, India’s total installed wind power capacity stands at 50 GW.

The Quadrilateral Security Dialogue (QUAD) is a strategic forum comprising India, the United States, Japan, and Australia. Its First Summit was held on March 12, 2021 virtually. The QUAD Leaders’ Summit 2022 took place on 24 May 2022 in Tokyo, Japan. The Indo-Pacific Maritime Domain Awareness (IPMDA) is a Quad-led initiative launched during the Quad Leaders’ Summit in Tokyo.

DY Patil Stadium, Navi Mumbai hosted the final.

Statements (i) and (iii) are true — four recipients, including Prabha Atre.

PSLV-C54 was the last PSLV mission of 2022.

India hosted the 18th G20 Summit in September 2023, marking India’s first-ever G20 Presidency.

The International Booker Prize 2022 was awarded to “Tomb of Sand”, written by Geetanjali Shree and translated from Hindi by Daisy Rockwell. This novel made history as the first book originally written in any Indian language to win the prestigious award.

SEHAT- Social Endeavour for Health and Telemedicine

The G20 does not have a permanent headquarters or secretariat. Instead, its leadership rotates annually among member countries, with each host nation setting the agenda and organizing the summit.

Chirag – Mizoram

Harun – Uttarakhand

Dholu Kunia – Karnataka

Lawa – Lakshadweep

Scheduled Areas declared in Chhattisgarh:

1. Surguja District (Entire) (now Surguja, Surajpur and Balrampur)
2. Koriya District (Entire) (now Koriya and Manendragarh-Chirmiri-Bharatpur)
3. Bastar District (Entire) (now Bastar, Narayanpur and Kondagaon)
4. Dantewada District (Entire) (now Dantewada, Bijapur and Sukma)
5. Kanker District (Entire)
6. Korba District (Entire)
7. Jashpur District (Entire)
8. Bilaspur District (Partial) – Marwahi, Gaurela-1, Gaurela-2 Tribal Development Blocks and Kota Revenue Inspector Block (now entire Gaurela Pendra-Marwahi)
9. Durg District (Partial) – Dondi Tribal Development Block of Balod Tehsil
10. Rajnandgaon District (Partial) – Chouki, Manpur and Mohla Tribal Development Blocks (now entire Mohela-Manpur-Chowki)
11. Raipur District (Partial) – Gariaband, Mainpur and Chhura Tribal Development Blocks of Bindranawagarh Tehsil
12. Dhamtari District (Partial) – Sihawa (Nagri) Tribal Development Block
13. Raigarh District (Partial) – Dharamjaygarh, Gharghoda, Tamnar, Lalunga and Kharsia Tribal Development Blocks

The Zila Panchayat in Chhattisgarh is constituted under the Chhattisgarh Panchayat Raj Adhiniyam, 1993. It consists of the following members:

1. Elected Members – Representatives elected from Zila Panchayat constituencies.
2. Lok Sabha Members – MPs representing Parliamentary constituencies that wholly or partly fall within the district.
3. Rajya Sabha Members – MPs from Chhattisgarh whose names appear in the voter list of a Gram Panchayat area within the district.
4. State Legislative Assembly Members – MLAs elected from the district (except those whose constituencies fall entirely within urban areas).
5. Janpad Panchayat Chairpersons – All Chairpersons of Janpad Panchayats within the district.

Additionally, MPs and MLAs who are members of the Zila Panchayat can nominate representatives to attend meetings if they are unable to do so

MADA Scheme has been operating since the Sixth Plan for the total development of the
dispersed tribal population residing outside Tribal Sub-Plan (TSP) area, which are contiguous smaller areas having a population of 10,000 or more, with 50% tribal concentration. There are 9 MADA Pockets in Chhattisgarh:

1. Baloda Bazar (147 villages)
2. Gangrel (in Dhamtari District)
3. Mahasamund-1 (200 villages)
4. Mahasamund-2 (215 villages)
5. Kabirdham (219 villages)
6. Rukza (46 villages in Sakti District)
7. Gopalpur (33 villages in Raigarh District)
8. Nachaniya (77 villages in Khairagarh-Chhui Khadan-Gandai District)
9. Sarangarh (100 villages)

There are areas included in the Cluster Pocket Approach (लघु अंचल) has been introduced from the middle of the 7th Five Year Plan Period in order to bring smaller areas of tribal concentration beyond the ITDPs and MADA Pockets into the mainstream of development. There are 2 Cluster Pockets Areas in Chhattisgarh: 1. Dhhurribandha (in Baloda Bazar District) 2. Bachherabhata (in Khairagarh-Chhui Khadan-Gandai District)

Chhattisgarh covers an area of 135,194 km², therefore about 65% of it comes under TSP.

District-wise overview:

1. Raipur: Limestone, diamond, and quartz.
2. Balodabazar: Limestone, dolomite, and traces of gold.
3. Gariaband: Garnet, diamond, and alexandrite.
4. Durg: Limestone, molding sand, and quartzite.
5. Kabirdham (Kawardha): Bauxite, limestone, and iron ore.
6. Rajnandgaon: Limestone, iron ore, fluorite, and quartz.
7. Korba: Coal and mic(A)
8. Surguja: Coal and bauxite.
9. Dantewada: Iron ore and tin ore.
10. Bijapur: Corundum and bauxite.
11. Sukma: Quartz, limestone, and tin.
12. Jashpur: Gold and bauxite.

The Forest Satyagraha in Chhattisgarh was a significant part of India’s freedom movement. These movements were acts of defiance against British-imposed restrictions on forest access, grazing, and resource collection, marking a crucial phase in tribal resistance

Here are key dates:

• Sihawa Forest Satyagraha – 21 January 1922 (Dhamtari), led by Babu Chhote Lal Shrivastava, Pandit Sundarlal Sharma, and Narayan Rao Meghawale.
• Gattasilli Forest Satyagraha – June 1930 (Dhamtari), led by Narayan Rao Meghawale, Nathuji Jagtap, and Babu Chhote Lal Shrivastava.
• Mohbana Pondi Forest Satyagraha – July 1930 (Durg), led by Narsingh Agrawal.
• Pondi Gram Forest Satyagraha – August 1930 (Bilaspur), led by Ramadhar Dubey.
• Rudri Navagaon Forest Satyagraha – August 1930 (Dhamtari), led by Chhote Lal Shrivastava, Nathuji Jagtap, and Narayan Rao.
• Tamora Forest Satyagraha – 8 September 1930 (Mahasamund), led by Dayabati, Shankarlal, and Yeti Yatanlal.
• Labhra Forest Satyagraha – September 1930 (Mahasamund), led by Alimardan Giri, Anand, and Shyamlal.
• Badhakhar Forest Satyagraha – 1930 (Korba), led by Manoharlal Shukla.
• Sarangarh Forest Satyagraha – 1930 (Raigarh), led by Dhaniram, Jagatram, and Kunwarbhan.
• Chhui Khadan Forest Satyagraha – 1938 (Rajnandgaon), led by Samaru Barai.
• Badaratola Forest Satyagraha – 1939 (Rajnandgaon), led by Ramadhin Gond.

The Mahanadi River has been known by several ancient names across different eras:

• Kanak Nandini – Ancient era
• Chitrotpala – Dvapara Yuga (mentioned in Matsya Purana)
• Nilotpala – Treta Yuga (mentioned in Vayu Purana)
• Mahanad – Mahabharata era
• Mahashweta – Kali Yuga

The main instrument used in Pandwani folk singing is the Tambura (Ektara), a stringed instrument often decorated. Additionally, Kartal (cymbals) is sometimes used to enhance rhythm